Carbohydrate Loading for Athletes

Introduction

Carbohydrate loading has evolved far beyond its marathon origins to become a powerful performance tool across virtually every competitive sport. Whether you’re preparing for an individual championship, gearing up for the playoffs, or stepping into the ring, understanding how to properly maximize your muscle glycogen stores can be the difference between peak performance and hitting the wall when it matters most.

The science is clear: done correctly, carbohydrate loading can nearly double your muscles’ fuel storage capacity, leading to measurable performance improvements ranging from 2-3% in endurance events to 8.7% work capacity increases in team sports. But the real breakthrough isn’t just that it works—it’s that modern protocols have eliminated the suffering that gave carb loading its brutal reputation in the 1960s and 1970s.

This comprehensive guide synthesizes decades of research to provide sport-specific carbohydrate loading strategies for individual sports, team sports, and combat sports. You’ll learn not just the science behind glycogen supercompensation, but practical implementation protocols that elite athletes use to gain competitive advantages.

The Science of Glycogen Supercompensation: How Your Muscles Store Extra Fuel

The Physiological Mechanism Behind Carb Loading

Done right, carbohydrate loading can nearly double your muscles’ fuel storage capacity—but understanding why this happens is crucial for optimal implementation. Back in 2003, exercise physiologist H.W. Goforth, Jr. demonstrated that starting with a glycogen-depleting workout leads to much higher and longer-lasting glycogen stores than simply tapering your training without prior depletion.

Here’s the mechanism: when your muscles run low on glycogen, your body responds by upregulating the molecular machinery responsible for glycogen storage. Research shows your muscles build extra glucose transporters (GLUT1 and GLUT4) and increase the enzyme hexokinase II, which makes it easier to take up and store more carbohydrates during the subsequent loading phase (Hingst et al., 2018).

The result? After a proper carbohydrate loading protocol, you can pack in approximately 4 grams of glycogen per 100 grams of muscle—almost double the normal resting amount of 2-2.5 grams per 100 grams of muscle (Jensen & Kolnes, 2024).

This phenomenon, known as glycogen supercompensation, represents a fundamental adaptation that occurs when you strategically deplete and then aggressively refuel your muscle energy stores.

Different Muscle Fibers, Different Fuel Storage Capacity

Not all your muscle fibers handle carbohydrate loading the same way, and understanding these differences helps explain why certain athletes benefit more than others.

Fiber Type	Fuel Storage Capacity	Fuel Usage Rate	Carb Loading Response
Fast-Twitch (Type II)	Store 14% more glycogen naturally	Burn fuel much faster during intense exercise	Greatest benefit during high-intensity efforts
Slow-Twitch (Type I)	Store less fuel initially but more efficient	Use fuel 30-35% slower than fast-twitch	Better at conserving fuel when consuming carbs during exercise

What This Means for Your Sport:

• Power/sprint athletes (sprinters, throwers, combat sports) often see bigger absolute benefits because their fast-twitch fibers store more glycogen and respond strongly to loading protocols
• Endurance athletes (distance runners, cyclists, triathletes) still benefit hugely because slow-twitch fibers become critical during prolonged efforts
• Team sport athletes (football, basketball, hockey) need both fiber types optimized since they perform repeated high-intensity efforts over extended match durations

Why Starting with More Fuel Makes You Perform Better

Here’s something that surprised researchers: the more glycogen you start with, the faster your muscles can access and utilize it during competition. Studies demonstrate that the rate of glycogen breakdown is directly proportional to how much you have stored at the start of exercise (Bergström et al., 1967).

Fuel Status	Glycogen Level (mmol/kg dry muscle)	Performance Impact
Normal athlete at rest	~120 mmol/kg	Baseline performance
After proper carb loading	~200 mmol/kg (67% increase)	Enhanced fuel access speed and sustained power output
Danger zone	<70 mmol/kg	Muscles begin failing during high-intensity efforts
Empty tank	<50 mmol/kg	Performance severely compromised, fatigue imminent

Multiple systematic reviews involving hundreds of athletes demonstrate that carbohydrate loading helps sustain high-intensity performance during both training and competition. When researchers analyzed real race and game conditions, 82% of studies reported significant performance gains from carbohydrate loading strategies (Stellingwerff & Cox, 2014).

The mechanism is straightforward: higher starting glycogen levels mean your muscles have more readily available fuel for ATP production, delaying the point at which you deplete stores and hit the wall.

From Extreme to Practical: How Carb Loading Methods Have Evolved

The Original “Suffer Fest” Protocol (1960s-1970s)

The first carbohydrate loading method, developed by Swedish researcher Jonas Bergström in the 1960s, was brutally effective but nearly impossible to tolerate. The classic protocol required:

Day 1 (7 days before event): Exhausting glycogen-depletion workout
Days 2-4: Near-zero carbohydrate intake (<10% of calories) while continuing training
Days 5-7: Very high carbohydrate intake (>90% of calories) with complete rest

While this method achieved dramatic glycogen supercompensation, athletes reported feeling irritable, fatigued, and mentally foggy during the depletion phase. Many felt worse immediately before competition than if they’d done nothing at all.

Today’s Smart Approach: Same Results, No Suffering

Research in the 1990s proved that well-trained athletes could achieve similar glycogen supercompensation in just 1-2 days, without the extreme depletion phase (Sherman et al., 1981). The modern approach is athlete-friendly: you can continue light training, feel good throughout the process, and still achieve maximum fuel storage.

The key insight: trained athletes possess enhanced glycogen synthesis capacity due to chronic adaptations from regular training. This means they can rapidly store glycogen when carbohydrate intake is increased, even without the extreme depletion phase that untrained individuals require.

Modern Protocol Benefits:

• Achieves 80-90% of the glycogen supercompensation of classic protocols
• Eliminates the miserable 3-day depletion phase
• Allows continued light training for skill maintenance
• Reduces psychological stress before major competitions
• Significantly better athlete compliance and satisfaction

Sport-Specific Carbohydrate Loading Strategies

Individual Sports: Matching Protocol to Event Duration

Endurance-Based Events (>90 Minutes Duration)

Endurance events derive the greatest benefit from carbohydrate loading. Research consistently shows that proper loading postpones fatigue by approximately 20% and improves time trial performance by 2-3% (Jeukendrup & Gleeson, 2010).

Training Status	Protocol Duration	CHO Intake (g/kg/day)	Training Modification
Elite/Well-trained	1-2 days	10-12	Complete rest or very light activity only
Trained	2-3 days	8-10	50% volume reduction from normal training

Sports that benefit most: Marathon running, long-distance cycling (>90 minutes), triathlon, cross-country skiing, long-distance swimming, ultra-endurance events.

Why it works: These events deplete muscle glycogen to critically low levels. Starting with supercompensated stores delays the point at which glycogen depletion compromises performance.

Power/Speed Events (<60 Minutes Duration)

Pure power and speed events show minimal benefit from traditional carbohydrate loading protocols. These events rely primarily on phosphocreatine and anaerobic glycolysis rather than sustained aerobic metabolism.

Recommendation: Maintain a normal high-carbohydrate diet (6-8 g/kg body weight) in the days leading up to competition. Traditional loading protocols are unnecessary and may cause unwanted weight gain and feelings of sluggishness.

Sports in this category: 100-400m sprinting, weightlifting, throwing events, high jump, pole vault, short-distance swimming (<200m).

Middle-Duration Events (60-120 Minutes)

Middle-duration events represent a sweet spot where carbohydrate loading provides significant benefits for maintaining power output and technical execution in later stages, without the extreme demands of ultra-endurance competition.

Protocol: Use 2-3 day protocol with 8-10 g/kg carbohydrate intake.

Sports that benefit: 10K running, half-marathon, Olympic-distance triathlon, 40K cycling time trial, 1500m swimming, middle-distance cross-country skiing.

Expected benefits: Maintained power output in final 25-30% of event, improved mental clarity and decision-making when fatigue typically sets in.

Team Sports: Optimizing Performance for Match Play

Recent research on elite soccer players demonstrated improved physical performance after 4 days of carbohydrate loading, with measurable benefits persisting through the full match duration (Kazemi et al., 2023). This research challenges the notion that carbohydrate loading is only for individual endurance sports.

Performance Enhancements in Team Sports

Benefit Area	Performance Enhancement
Sprint Speed	Maintained in final quarters when opponents fade
Decision-Making	Improved cognitive function under physical fatigue
Skill Execution	Better technical performance when tired
Recovery Between Matches	Enhanced glycogen restoration between fixtures

Team Sports Carbohydrate Loading Protocol

Protocol Element	Recommendation
Duration	2-3 days before important matches
Carbohydrate Intake	8-10 g/kg body weight daily
Training	Technical/skills work only, minimal physical load
Tournament Play	Maintain 6-8 g/kg between games to sustain elevated stores

Sports that benefit: Football/soccer, basketball, hockey, rugby, lacrosse, field hockey, Australian rules football.

Critical consideration: During tournament play with multiple matches in short succession, maintaining elevated carbohydrate intake (6-8 g/kg) between matches helps sustain supercompensated levels rather than requiring repeated full loading protocols.

Combat Sports: Coordinating Loading with Weight Management

Combat sports present unique challenges due to weight class requirements, but the performance benefits of carbohydrate loading can be substantial when properly coordinated with weight cutting protocols.

Combat Sports Implementation Protocol

Protocol Element	Recommendation
Duration	2-4 days (coordinate carefully with weight cutting timeline)
Carbohydrate Intake	8-10 g/kg body weight
Training	Light technical sessions only, no hard sparring

Performance Benefits for Combat Athletes

Performance Benefit	Impact
Anaerobic Power Output	Enhanced explosive movement and striking power
Recovery Between Rounds	Improved ability to maintain output across multiple rounds
Technique Maintenance	Better technical execution under fatigue
Mental Focus	Sharper concentration and tactical decision-making

Sports that benefit: Boxing, MMA, wrestling, judo, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, kickboxing, taekwondo.

Critical timing consideration: For athletes who cut weight, the optimal strategy is to begin carbohydrate loading immediately after weigh-in. This requires careful coordination between making weight and competition timing. Athletes with same-day weigh-ins face greater challenges and may benefit from working with a sports nutritionist to optimize the timeline.

Practical Implementation Guide: The Modern 48-Hour Elite Protocol

The Evidence-Based Two-Day Protocol for Trained Athletes

This protocol represents the current gold standard for trained athletes who want maximal glycogen supercompensation with minimal disruption to training and minimal psychological stress.

Day	Training	Nutrition	Key Points
Day 1 (48h before competition)	Light depletion exercise (60-90 min at moderate intensity), then complete rest	Normal mixed diet (5-6 g/kg carbohydrates)	Empty the tank to trigger adaptation, then rest completely
Day 2 (24h before competition)	Complete rest or very light technical work only	High carbohydrate intake (10-12 g/kg)	Fill the tank, monitor for expected weight gain

Expected physiological changes: Monitor body weight increase of 1-2% (every gram of glycogen binds with 3-5 grams of water—this is performance-enhancing, not problematic).

Sample Daily Meal Plan for a 70kg Athlete

Target: 10 g/kg body weight = 700g carbohydrates daily during loading phase

Meal	Food Items	Carbohydrates (g)
Breakfast	Oatmeal (100g dry), banana, honey (2 tbsp), orange juice (300ml)	120
Mid-morning	Sports drink (500ml), energy bar	80
Lunch	White rice (150g cooked weight), grilled chicken breast, steamed vegetables, white bread (2 slices)	140
Afternoon	Fruit smoothie with banana and berries, rice crackers	100
Dinner	Pasta (200g cooked weight), marinara sauce, garlic bread, side salad	160
Evening	Low-fat Greek yogurt, granola, mixed fruit	100
Total		700g

Pro tip: Use sports drinks and easily digestible carbohydrate sources rather than trying to eat massive volumes of solid food. This reduces gastrointestinal distress while still hitting carbohydrate targets.

Monitoring Your Carbohydrate Loading Protocol

Positive Signs That Loading Is Working

Indicator	What You Should See
Body Weight	1-2% increase (reflects glycogen + bound water storage)
Muscle Feel	“Tight” or “pumped” sensation in major muscle groups
Energy Levels	Maintained or slightly improved (not exhausted)
Hydration Status	Light yellow urine color throughout
Digestive Comfort	Manageable fullness without severe bloating

Red Flags Indicating Problems

Warning Sign	What It Indicates
Extreme Fatigue	Insufficient carbohydrate intake or inadequate rest
Severe Digestive Distress	Too much fiber, eating too quickly, or food intolerances
Weight Gain >3%	Excessive total caloric intake (adding fat, not just carbs)
Dark Urine	Inadequate fluid intake alongside carbohydrate consumption
Mood Disturbances	Possible blood sugar instability or insufficient sleep

Troubleshooting Common Carbohydrate Loading Issues

Problem #1: “I Feel Bloated and Heavy”

Why this happens: High carbohydrate intake increases intestinal contents and water retention. Every gram of glycogen binds with 3-5 grams of water.

The fix:

• Spread carbohydrate intake throughout the day (every 2-3 hours)
• Choose familiar foods that you know your system tolerates
• Temporarily reduce fiber intake to minimize gut bulk
• Use liquid carbohydrate sources (sports drinks, juices) to hit targets without excessive food volume
• Avoid high-fat foods which slow digestion

Problem #2: “I’m Gaining Too Much Weight”

The reality: 1-2% weight gain is normal and beneficial. Every gram of stored glycogen brings 3-5 grams of water—this isn’t body fat, it’s performance-enhancing fuel and hydration that will be utilized during competition.

When to worry: If weight gain exceeds 3% of body weight, you’re likely consuming excess calories overall, not just replacing fats with carbohydrates.

The fix:

• Reduce fat intake to <15% of calories during loading phase
• Focus on swapping fats for carbs, not just adding carbs on top of normal intake
• Monitor portion sizes of protein sources (keep moderate, not excessive)
• Use lower-fat versions of dairy products

Problem #3: “My Glycogen Stores Aren’t Filling Up”

Possible causes:

• Inadequate depletion stimulus in the 48 hours before loading
• Insufficient carbohydrate intake (ensure minimum 8 g/kg)
• Inadequate rest (training too much during loading phase)
• Insufficient time (some athletes need 48-72 hours, not just 24 hours)

The fix:

• Perform a proper depletion session 48 hours before competition
• Accurately calculate and track carbohydrate intake
• Eliminate all moderate-to-hard training during loading phase
• Allow full 48-72 hours for loading process

Problem #4: “I Feel Tired Instead of Energized”

Why this happens: Blood sugar instability from eating large amounts of simple carbohydrates without adequate protein and fat.

The fix:

• Include 20-30g protein with each major meal
• Avoid consuming >100g carbohydrates in a single sitting
• Use a mixture of complex and simple carbohydrate sources
• Monitor blood sugar stability (avoid extreme highs and crashes)
• Ensure adequate sleep during loading phase (7-9 hours nightly)

Safety Considerations and Contraindications

Medical Conditions Requiring Caution

Medical Condition	Risk Level	Recommendation
Diabetes (Type 1 or 2)	High	Blood sugar swings can be dangerous—work closely with medical team and monitor glucose levels
History of Eating Disorders	Moderate	Extreme dietary changes can be psychologically triggering—work with sports psychologist
Digestive Issues (IBS, Crohn’s, Colitis)	Moderate	Modify approach carefully, reduce fiber, use easily digestible sources
Kidney Disease	Moderate	High carbohydrate intake affects fluid balance—consult nephrologist
Metabolic Disorders	High	Glycogen storage diseases or metabolic conditions require medical supervision

Pro Tip: First-time carbohydrate loading should always be practiced during training preparations, never before your biggest competition of the year. This allows you to identify individual responses and troubleshoot issues without jeopardizing important performances.

Evidence-Based Performance Outcomes: What the Research Actually Shows

Performance Improvements by Sport Category

Sport Category	Event Duration	Performance Improvement	Evidence Level
Individual Endurance	>90 minutes	2-3% time trial improvement, 15-25% increased capacity	Strong (Multiple RCTs)
Individual Middle-Duration	60-120 minutes	5-10% better performance maintenance in final stages	Moderate
Team Sports	60-120 minutes	8.7% work capacity increase, maintained output in final periods	Emerging
Combat Sports	15-45 minutes	Enhanced round-to-round performance, better recovery	Limited but promising

Critical interpretation: While percentage improvements may seem modest (2-3%), in elite competition these differences are enormous. A 2% improvement in marathon time represents approximately 3-4 minutes—often the difference between winning and finishing outside the top 10.

Special Considerations for Advanced Implementation

Glycogen Persistence: How Long Do Loaded Muscles Stay Fueled?

Supercompensated glycogen levels can be maintained for 3-5 days in resting athletes when moderate carbohydrate intake (6-8 g/kg) is consumed (Arnall et al., 2007). This has important implications:

• You don’t need to time loading to occur exactly 24 hours before competition
• During tournament play, maintaining elevated carbohydrate intake sustains supercompensated levels
• Weather delays or competition postponements don’t completely erase loading benefits
• You can load multiple days in advance if needed for travel or logistics

Gender Differences in Glycogen Supercompensation

Historical research suggested women might not achieve the same supercompensation as men, but modern studies have debunked this myth. Both men and women achieve similar supercompensation levels when carbohydrate intake is adequate, with women showing 82% increases compared to 78% in men (Tarnopolsky et al., 1995).

Key consideration: Women may need to ensure sufficient total energy intake during loading phase, as chronic low energy availability can impair glycogen storage capacity.

Repeated Loading for Tournament Play

Athletes can achieve repeated glycogen supercompensation with 4 days of high carbohydrate feeding between exhaustive exercise bouts—highly relevant for tournament play in team sports, tennis, wrestling tournaments, or track and field meets with multiple rounds (Arnall et al., 2007).

Protocol for tournament play:

• Perform full carbohydrate loading protocol before tournament begins
• Maintain 6-8 g/kg carbohydrate intake between matches/events
• If >4 days separate major efforts, can implement another mini-loading protocol

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Q:How many days before competition should I start carbohydrate loading?
For well-trained athletes, 1-2 days of high carbohydrate intake (10-12 g/kg body weight) is sufficient to achieve glycogen supercompensation. Less-trained or recreational athletes may need 3-4 days. The protocol should begin 48 hours before competition for most athletes, preceded by a light depletion session to trigger the adaptation.

Q:Can I carbohydrate load without the depletion phase?
Yes, but results are typically less dramatic. Well-trained athletes can achieve 70-80% of maximal supercompensation simply by increasing carbohydrate intake and reducing training volume, even without a specific depletion session. However, including a light 60-90 minute moderate-intensity workout 48 hours before competition enhances glycogen storage capacity by upregulating glucose transporters and storage enzymes.

Q:Will carbohydrate loading make me gain fat?
No, when done correctly. The 1-2% weight gain during carbohydrate loading is almost entirely glycogen and bound water, not body fat. To avoid fat gain, you should replace dietary fat with carbohydrates rather than simply adding carbohydrates on top of your normal intake. Keep fat intake to <15% of total calories during the loading phase.

Q:What’s the difference between carb loading and just eating a lot of pasta?
Carbohydrate loading is a systematic protocol involving strategic timing, specific carbohydrate amounts relative to body weight (8-12 g/kg), and coordination with training reduction. Simply eating large amounts of pasta without considering total carbohydrate targets, timing, or training modifications is unlikely to achieve optimal glycogen supercompensation and may just lead to digestive discomfort.

Q:Should I carb load before every race or match?
No. Carbohydrate loading is most beneficial before important competitions or events lasting >90 minutes. For weekly races, regular training sessions, or short-duration events, maintaining a normal high-carbohydrate diet (6-8 g/kg) is sufficient. Reserve full loading protocols for championships, playoffs, or your most important competitions of the season.

Q:Can I exercise during the carbohydrate loading phase?
Yes, but only very light activity. Complete rest is ideal, but light technical work, stretching, or easy mobility sessions are acceptable. Avoid any moderate-to-hard training during the 48-hour loading phase, as this will deplete the glycogen you’re trying to store and defeat the purpose of the protocol.

Q:What if I’m trying to make weight for my sport?
For weight-class sports (wrestling, boxing, MMA), the optimal strategy is to complete weight cutting first, then implement rapid carbohydrate loading immediately after weigh-in. This requires careful timing coordination. For same-day weigh-ins, work with a sports nutritionist to develop a modified protocol that balances making weight with performance fueling.

Q:How do I know if carbohydrate loading worked?
Positive indicators include 1-2% body weight increase, a “full” or “tight” feeling in major muscle groups, maintained energy levels, and most importantly, improved performance during competition. Track objective performance metrics (power output, speed, endurance capacity) during training trials of the protocol before using it in important competitions.

Q:What are the best carbohydrate sources for loading?
Focus on easily digestible, high-glycemic carbohydrates: white rice, pasta, bread, potatoes, bananas, sports drinks, energy gels, honey, and low-fiber cereals. Temporarily reduce high-fiber foods during loading to minimize digestive bulk. Use a combination of solid foods and liquid carbohydrate sources to hit targets without excessive fullness.

Q:Can I carb load if I follow a low-carb or keto diet normally?
This is challenging because your body adapts to low-carbohydrate diets by downregulating glycogen storage enzymes and glucose transporters. If you normally follow very low carbohydrate intake, you may need a longer transition period (4-7 days) to reactivate the metabolic machinery necessary for effective glycogen supercompensation. Consider whether chronic low-carb eating is optimal for your sport’s demands.

Conclusion

Carbohydrate loading works across almost every sport—not just marathons. When done correctly using modern protocols, you can achieve real, measurable performance benefits whether you’re competing individually, with a team, or in combat sports.

The Non-Negotiables

Key Principle	Critical Point
Modern methods are easier	No more week-long suffering protocols required
Elite athletes can load fast	Well-trained athletes need only 1-2 days
It’s about smart swapping	Replace fats with carbohydrates, don’t just add more food
Your muscle fiber type matters	Power/sprint athletes often see bigger benefits
Timing is flexible	Loaded muscles stay fueled for 3-5 days with moderate carb intake

Keys to Success

Action Item	Implementation
Match timing to training level	Elite = 1-2 days, recreational = 3-4 days
Use familiar foods	Stick with foods you know your digestive system tolerates
Monitor key indicators	Track body weight, energy levels, and muscle fullness
Plan strategically	Coordinate with competition schedule and travel logistics
Practice first	Trial during training competitions, never before major events

The Real Truth About Carb Loading

Carbohydrate loading isn’t about mindlessly stuffing yourself with endless bowls of pasta the night before competition. It’s about strategically timing your nutrition so you show up to competition with maximized muscle glycogen stores and muscles metabolically primed to perform at their peak. Done right, it can be the difference between finishing strong or hitting the wall when it matters most.

The evidence is overwhelming: when implemented according to modern, evidence-based protocols, carbohydrate loading delivers measurable performance improvements across a wide range of sports and athlete types. The question isn’t whether it works—the research has definitively answered that. The question is whether you’re willing to implement it correctly to gain the competitive advantage it provides.

References

• Arnall, D. A., Nelson, A. G., Quigley, J., Lex, S., Dehart, T., & Fortune, P. (2007). Supercompensated glycogen loads persist 5 days in resting trained cyclists. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 99(3), 251-256.
• Bergström, J., Hermansen, L., Hultman, E., & Saltin, B. (1967). Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 71, 140-150.
• Goforth, H. W. Jr., Laurent, D., Prusaczyk, W. K., Schneider, K. F., Petersen, K. F., & Shulman, G. I. (2003). Effects of depletion exercise and light training on muscle glycogen supercompensation in men. American Journal of Physiology – Endocrinology and Metabolism, 285(6), E1304-E1311.
• Hingst, J. R., Bruhn, L., Hansen, M. B., Rosschou, M. F., Birk, J. B., Fentz, J., … & Wojtaszewski, J. F. P. (2018). Exercise-induced molecular mechanisms promoting glycogen supercompensation in human skeletal muscle. Molecular Metabolism, 16, 24-34.
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• Jeukendrup, A., & Gleeson, M. (2010). Sports Nutrition: An Introduction to Energy Production and Performance. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.
• Kazemi, A., Racil, G., Ahmadi Hekmatikar, A. H., Behnam Moghadam, M., Karami, P., & Henselmans, M. (2023). Improved physical performance of elite soccer players based on GPS results after 4 days of carbohydrate loading followed by 3 days of low carbohydrate diet. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 20(1), 2258837.
• Sherman, W. M., Costill, D. L., Fink, W. J., & Miller, J. M. (1981). Effect of exercise-diet manipulation on muscle glycogen and its subsequent utilization during performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 2(2), 114-118.
• Stellingwerff, T., & Cox, G. R. (2014). Systematic review: Carbohydrate supplementation on exercise performance or capacity of varying durations. Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, 39, 998-1011.
• Tarnopolsky, M. A., Atkinson, S. A., Phillips, S. M., & MacDougall, J. D. (1995). Carbohydrate loading and metabolism during exercise in men and women. Journal of Applied Physiology, 78(4), 1360-1368.